BEHAVIORAL AND ESTRUS DETECTION TOOLS

Estrus detection remains critical for managing reproduction and determining insemination timing [139]. Physiologically, estrus is characterized by behavioral changes reflecting increased locomotor activity due to estrogen stimulation [140]. Activity monitors, pedometers, and pressure sensors can track these behaviors [17, 141–143]. In delayed ovulation, estrus behavior may occur without ovulation, highlighting the need to combine behavioral monitoring with ovarian or hormonal assessment [142]. Traditional visual observation remains practical for small-scale farms but depends on observer skill and frequency [144]. Artificial insemination (AI)-based estrus detection systems enhance accuracy by integrating activity, diet, body temperature, and historical cycle data, helping flag cows at risk for delayed ovulation [125, 145]. These field-applicable tools are more feasible and cost-effective than laboratory-based hormone or molecular assays.