CONCLUSION

ARs in foods of animal origin represent a complex challenge that extends beyond their well established public health implications and directly affects the technological performance and sustainability of fermentation-based food systems. The evidence synthesized in this review demonstrates that ARs are widely distributed across dairy, meat, egg, and aquaculture products, with contamination levels varying according to geographical region, production system, and regulatory capacity. Different antibiotic classes, particularly β-lactams, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, and chloramphenicol, interfere with microbial metabolism and impair key fermentation processes, resulting in delayed acidification, reduced proteolysis, altered flavor development, fermentation failure, and increased risks of pathogen survival and biogenic amine accumulation. The review further highlights the strengths and limitations of currently available analytical approaches and emphasizes the importance of integrating preventive, monitoring, and technological interventions to minimize the occurrence and consequences of AR contamination.

From a practical perspective, effective management of ARs requires responsible antibiotic use, strict compliance with withdrawal periods, improved animal husbandry practices, strengthened surveillance systems, and implementation of rapid and reliable detection technologies. In addition, the development of residue-tolerant starter cultures, innovative biosensor platforms, and digital monitoring tools may provide valuable opportunities for improving fermentation reliability and food safety. Harmonization of international regulatory frameworks and enhancement of monitoring capacities, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, are equally essential for reducing contamination and facilitating safe global trade.

A major strength of this review lies in its integrative approach, which combines microbiological, pharmacological, technological, and regulatory perspectives to provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms and consequences of AR contamination in fermented foods. Unlike previous studies that have focused predominantly on toxicological aspects and AMR, the present review emphasizes the technological dimension of ARs and highlights their implications for fermentation performance and product quality across different food sectors.

Nevertheless, several limitations should be acknowledged. Available evidence remains fragmented, and differences in study design, analytical methodologies, and surveillance capacities limit direct comparisons among studies. Furthermore, standardized dose-response thresholds for fermentation inhibition are lacking, and information regarding the long-term effects of low-level AR exposure on food microbiomes and fermentation ecosystems remains limited. In addition, relatively few studies have systematically compared industrial, artisanal, and traditional fermentation systems.

Future research should prioritize the establishment of standardized fermentation inhibition thresholds, long-term investigations of AR–microbiome interactions, and comparative studies across diverse fermentation systems. Greater integration of advanced technologies, including AI, metagenomics, nanobiosensors, and CRISPR-based detection platforms, may substantially improve monitoring and risk assessment. Further studies are also required to develop scalable and economically sustainable mitigation strategies applicable to both industrial and smallholder production systems.

Overall, ARs should be recognized not only as contaminants of public health concern but also as important determinants of technological performance in fermented foods. Addressing this challenge requires coordinated, multidisciplinary, and One Health-oriented approaches integrating veterinary medicine, food microbiology, analytical sciences, food technology, and regulatory policy. Such efforts will be essential for safeguarding food quality and safety, preserving fermentation technologies, and ensuring the long-term sustainability and resilience of global food systems.