CRITICAL SYNTHESIS AND IMPLICATIONS

Overall, the global distribution of ARs reveals a consistent pattern: higher contamination levels in regions with limited regulatory enforcement and lower yet persistent levels in highly regulated systems. Importantly, the current body of literature remains largely descriptive, with relatively few comparative analyses across geographical regions and food categories. Furthermore, the absence of standardized risk-ranking systems for antibiotic classes based on their technological and microbiological impacts represents a major gap in both research and policy development.

These findings highlight the importance of addressing ARs at their source through improved antibiotic stewardship, stricter enforcement of withdrawal periods, and strengthened surveillance systems. Although technological innovations, including residue-tolerant starter cultures and alternative farming practices, offer promising opportunities, their successful implementation will require coordinated efforts among governments, regulatory agencies, industry stakeholders, and researchers [19, 21]. Ultimately, effective control of ARs is essential not only for protecting public health but also for maintaining food quality, ensuring technological reliability, and preserving the sustainability of animal-derived food systems [1, 41].