Conclusions

To develop innovative approaches for skeletal sampling that optimize DNA typing while preserving the structural integrity of remains, this study evaluated two promising strategies: auditory ossicles and petrous bone micro-sampling. Our findings demonstrated that auditory ossicles are highly effective for obtaining high-quality DNA, simplifying collection and minimizing disruptions to the skull. When ossicles are unavailable, petrous bone micro-sampling offers a viable alternative, producing complete or near-complete STR profiles in most cases while maintaining cranial integrity. This technique should be performed with the bone in its anatomical position by trained specialists to ensure minimal invasiveness and structural preservation.

Beyond technical performance, these results have broader implications for forensic and humanitarian operations. Identification efforts -whether in mass fatality events, migration-related disasters, or routine missing persons cases- must balance scientific effectiveness with ethical responsibility, while respecting dignity and cultural values. By showing that robust genetic profiles can be obtained without highly destructive sampling, this work supports a paradigm shift toward more sustainable, ethically grounded workflows. Integrating these approaches into identification protocols will strengthen international standards and provide families with answers while honoring the integrity of human remains.