Introduction

Interpersonal violence and animal abuse

Interpersonal violence is a significant public health and social concern with severe societal and individual consequences [1]. Over the past two decades, a substantial body of research has demonstrated a consistent association between interpersonal violence and animal abuse [2–7]. Acts of cruelty toward animals are increasingly recognized as indicators of broader patterns of violence, including domestic abuse, child abuse, and other criminal behaviours [8–12].

In the Netherlands, the relationship between interpersonal violence and animal abuse gained attention in 2009, when research revealed that 60% of veterinarians treating companion animals (N = 108) had observed signs of abuse in their practice [13]. Follow-up research further demonstrated that domestic violence and animal abuse frequently coexist within households, highlighting the need for early detection and documentation by professionals such as veterinarians, social workers, and law enforcement officers [14]. These findings emphasize the importance of veterinary forensic investigations not only for establishing cause and manner of death, but also for generating evidence that contributes to both legal proceedings and violence-prevention strategies [15, 16].

Veterinary forensics in the Netherlands

Veterinary forensic pathology applies postmortem investigative methods to determine the cause and manner of death in animals, differentiating between natural and non-natural causes such as trauma, neglect, or poisoning. In the Netherlands, these investigations play a key role in enforcing the Wet Dieren (Animal Law) and relevant sections of the Dutch Penal Code, which criminalize intentional or negligent harm to animals (see Supplementary Material 1) [17–21]. Reports generated from necropsies are frequently used in court cases to substantiate claims of abuse and establish forensic evidence that can link suspects to crimes [17]. Forensic findings can support legal proceedings and strengthen the evidentiary basis for prosecution.

Veterinary forensics is a developing field in the Netherlands, and most cases of suspected abuse are investigated through collaboration between police authorities and independent forensic organizations, such as Stichting Forensisch Dierenonderzoek (Forensic Animal Research Foundation). These institutions perform postmortem examinations, assist with evidence interpretation, and provide expert testimony in court when required.

A retrospective analysis of veterinary forensic cases in the Netherlands

Although veterinary forensic medicine has gained recognition internationally [22–27], systematic analyses of Dutch veterinary forensic casework have not yet been published. To date, there is no comprehensive dataset describing the prevalence, causes, and judicial outcomes of animal abuse cases in the Netherlands. This absence of consolidated national data limits the development of evidence-based prevention strategies, enforcement policies, and professional training programs.

The present study provides the first multi-year retrospective overview of necropsies conducted between January 2020 and December 2024 by Stichting Forensisch Dierenonderzoek (Forensic Animal Research Foundation), the primary institution performing veterinary forensic investigations in the Netherlands. A smaller number of cases are handled by Utrecht University and Wageningen University & Research [17].

The main objective of this study is to characterize the causes and manners of death in animals submitted under suspicion of abuse or other non-natural causes, identify temporal and geographical trends, and biological profiles and evaluate the evidentiary and legal outcomes of these investigations. By analysing patterns in deaths, investigative findings, and case outcomes, this study provides the first structured insight into the scope and nature of veterinary forensic practice in the Netherlands. The findings aim to support law enforcement and judicial authorities, inform policy development, and contribute to the standardization and advancement of veterinary forensic pathology nationally and internationally.