Cancer biomarker-based biosensor

A sensor with a receptor specifically designed as a biological recognition element is called a biosensor. In 1962, the first generation of glucose oxidase (GOx) biosensors was introduced by Clark and Lyons, marking a turning point in biosensor development [38]. Biosensors are an excellent choice for detecting metabolic compounds and are widely used in clinical assays due to their high sensitivity, rapid response and low production cost [39]. This analytical device integrates biological recognition components with a physicochemical detector, consisting of a bioreceptor, transducer and detector with a digital output. Bioreceptors, including affibodies, antibodies, enzymes, aptamers and nucleic acids (DNA or RNA), selectively bind to their complementary targets, such as antigens, substrates and other DNA or RNA. Upon interacting with the target analyte, the bioreceptor generates a signal that the transducer processes for measurement. Transducers are classified into four types: electrochemical, optical, calorimetric and mass [40].