PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Physical characteristics are equally decisive for lactating cows because they govern intake dynamics, mixing behavior, sorting risk, and ruminal buffering [9, 73–75]. Wet cassava pulp/pomace is commonly delivered at very low DM (often near 13–17% as-fed depending on source and drainage), which can constrain inclusion rates through bulk, transport cost per unit DM, and rapid spoilage pressure [76], while dried or pelleted forms reduce logistics constraints but can change eating rate and effective fiber contribution [77–79]. Processing history should be considered alongside chemical composition because cassava pulp with similar starch concentrations may differ markedly in functional feeding value. Heat drying can alter the physicochemical properties of starch, including gelatinization-related behavior and granule accessibility, whereas ensiling or fermentation can modify the surrounding matrix and pre-digest part of the substrate. Consequently, fresh, dried, ensiled, or fermented cassava pulp with comparable starch concentrations may differ in ruminal starch digestibility and therefore in predicted net energy for lactation (NEL). This interpretation is consistent with recent work showing that additive-treated ensiled cassava pulp can alter gas kinetics, rumen fermentation characteristics, and degradability, even when the material remains recognizably a cassava pulp residue [35, 80]. Ensiled/fermented forms sit between these extremes: they preserve wet material and can stabilize handling, but their nutritional interpretation must explicitly account for additives (e.g., urea or molasses) and fermentation outcomes, because these can materially alter equivalent CP (via N addition), fiber fractions, and ruminal nitrogen supply [81, 82].