Conclusion

The present study concluded that flathead grey mullet, sardine, and mackerel samples analyzed contained high concentrations of heavy metals. Arsenic showed the highest levels, whereas Cd exhibited the lowest. Most of the samples examined exceeded permissible limits, particularly for As and Pb. Cd concentrations remained within safe limits across all species. Flathead grey mullet revealed the highest Hg and As concentrations, sardine exhibited the highest Pb levels, and mackerel showed the highest Cd concentration. The EDI of heavy metals through consuming the examined fish species by the general population remained below their PTDIs or BMDLs, except for Hg in flathead grey mullet. However, among high-fish consumers, the intake of Hg in all species, As in flathead grey mullet and sardine, and Pb in sardine and mackerel, exceeded the recommended safety limits, indicating a potential public health concern. In addition, the THQ values for Hg and As, as well as the TTHQ values for the three fish species examined, were above 1.0, indicating a potential non-carcinogenic health risk to the consumer. Furthermore, the carcinogenic risk values of As were higher than 1.0 × 10−4 from consuming contaminated fish among both the general population and high-fish consumers, suggesting a potential carcinogenic risk. Hence, continuous monitoring of heavy metal contamination in marketed marine fish, along with stricter regulatory control of pollution sources and raising public awareness of safe consumption practices, is essential to protect public health. Further studies covering a wider range of fish species from different locations in Egypt are crucial to determine the levels of contamination by HMs in fish and to assess the potential health risks.